Language Change – The Victorians
The industrial revolution (1760-1900) was the era in which Britain became a more urban, industrialised society. It is believed that the inventions and contraptions which emerged during this era changed the face of the British economy forever, as both the landscape and infrastructure of Britain changed dramatically. This historical period also had a major impact on language, as swelling had to occur in order to accommodate the abundance of new ideas. There were many newly coined words in the fields of science, psychology and economics as a result of the expanding cities and factories.The rise of technology and industry
The lives of the upper class and middle class were transformed by the multitude of new inventions during Queen Victoria’s reign. New domestic appliances included iron cooking ranges, which were a vast improvement on the old open fires that were previously used for their built in ovens. Bath water could be heated by gas-powered ‘geysers’ – slightly frightening for the user but they certainly benefited the maids who would otherwise have to carry bath water upstairs.
The new telegraph system used worldwide for trading created employment opportunities for women, as old coffee houses were replaced by modern offices and women were employed as ‘typewritists’ and ‘telephonists’ – the telephone was invented in 1877, making long distance communication much more efficient.
Fox Talbot invented the first photographs in 1834, calling them ‘sun pictures’. Portraits of the Queen and her family proved popular as it was the first time her subjects could see what their monarch really looked like.
The textile industry also experienced great changes – cotton spinning and weaving was mechanised in 1790 using water power. For the power-driven shafts and belts to be used economically, workers had to comply with the ‘factory discipline’ enforced by overseers. The mass employment gave way to impersonal contracts. Elaborately designed, gorgeous silk fabrics were produced in Spitafields in London.
Coal was a key component of the industrial revolution, with coal fired steam engines at the heart of the booming economy, whether in factories or the new rail network. Women and children were employed to pull the wagons of coal as they were smaller and cheaper than properly trained horses. Sir Humphrey-Davey’s invention of the safety lamp in 1815 enabled deeper levels to be exploited for coal and various methods of ventilating mines were also invented. Between 1850 and 1880 the number of miners rose from an estimated 200,000 to 500,000, and output rose from 30 million tons in 1836 to 44 million in 1880.
Cities began to specialise in producing certain goods, allowing localised trading to continue taking place: Sheffield became the centre for cutlery, Leicester and Nottingham for hosiery, Northampton for shoes and Birmingham for metalworking and small arms. However, London remained the hub for industry. London factories supplied that necessary status symbol - a piano.
From 1819 onwards, a series of acts made factory owners responsible for the health and safety of their workers. For example, mines were regularly inspected from 1850 onwards and women and children could ‘only’ work ten hours a day and night work was made forbidden. Sadly, legislation does not always result in reform, particularly in coal mines where the conditions remained life-threatening until the next century.
Education
The idea of apprenticeships became attractive during this era. A master or mistress of trade would train a young person for usually around 7 years so that they could earn a living at that trade. Prosperous merchants, goldsmiths and bankers made respectable sums from the premiums paid by the parents of ambitious apprentices. Poor masters could benefit from the unpaid labour of children taken from the parish workhouse, but here were many scandals of parish apprentices being so ill‐treated that they ran away, or worse, died!
The Church of England and the non‐conformist movement both provided elementary education, and both adopted the Lancaster system whereby the pupil believed to be the most intelligent taught what he had learned to a group of fellow‐pupils.
In the upper classes it was assumed that a girl would marry and therefore had no need for a formal education. Her goals in life were to look beautiful, entertain her husband’s guests, and produce a reasonable number of children. ‘Accomplishments’ such as playing the piano, singing and flower‐arranging were all‐important. If she couldn’t find a husband she faced a bleak future as a 'maiden aunt' whose help could be called upon to look after her aged parents or her siblings’ children. She might *gasp* have to take on employment as a governess, trapped in the schoolroom with children who had no interest in absorbing information. However, attitudes towards women’s education was improved when Queen’s College in Harley Street, London was founded in 1848, to give governesses a well-recognized and marketable qualification. A decade later saw the foundation of Cheltenham Ladies’ College. Other girls’ public schools followed. This increase in female education led to renewed demands for the vote - The National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies was founded in 1897.
1870 saw a breakthrough for education as a result of the Elementary Education Act - elected school boards could levy a local rate to build new schools providing education up to the age of 10. In 1880 the provision of elementary schooling for both sexes was made compulsory, and the age raised to 13. Another change in the law enabled grammar schools for girls to be founded and funded. By 1898, 90 such schools had been founded.
For centuries, the ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge had inflicted three barriers to entrance. An applicant had to be male, unmarried and a member of the Church of England. Female applicants were not accepted until the next century.
Transport
The railway network thrived between 1830-1870. By 1852 there were over 7,000 miles of rail track in England and Scotland. This created a wealth of opportunities for commerce and travel, powering industrial and economic development and growth as goods could be transported at unprecedented speeds. For instance, newspapers printed in London in the early hours could be loaded on a train to be sold that morning in the provinces and fresh produce such as milk or meat could be rushed from rural producers to city consumers on a daily basis. Was this the beginning of globalisation and our ‘shrinking world’?
In 1863, the first underground railway was constructed, as a solution to the chaotic traffic that was filling inner cities, connecting Paddington station to Farringdon street.
Class Divide
The sudden increase in trade and the new sophistication of banking methods meant that every business and factory needed a small army of clerks. Every invoice, every letter, every ledger entry had to be written quickly and eloquently by hand. It was estimated that the 44,000 clerks, accountants and bankers who had dispatched business in 1851 had swollen to 119,000 20 years later. This raised the status of the middle class by providing middle class men with a steady source of income to provide for their families.
Middle class women were heavily reliant on domestic servants, which ranged from untrained ‘slaves’ to highly trained specialists depending on wealth. Young wives who were only recently elevated to their middle class husband’s status often lacked the knowledge to manage a household and this created a huge market for advice books, such as as Isabella Beeton’s Book of Household Management, published in 1861. Tedious tasks such as cooking, cleaning and buying food were taken care of by servants, so middle class women could please themselves, perhaps visiting her friends or sampling the new fashionable emporium in the town centre.
If she could afford to, she would have her clothes made for her in one of the stylish, expensive salons. The industrial revolution was a wonderful era for the middle class, allowing them to live more than comfortably.
During the late 1800s there were approximately 30,000 street sellers (known as costermongers) in London, each selling their particular wares from a barrow or donkey-cart. This provided a reasonable income as both the middle class and working class depended on costermongers.
The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 established ‘workhouses’ in place of the old poor houses to provide employment for those with no prospect of a living wage, or those who’s sickness or disability prevented them from working properly. The conditions in these workhouses were pretty dire. The food was barely enough to keep the inmates from starvation, but they were clothed and occasionally washed. The children were entitled to some elementary education, but this was often ignored by the workhouse keeper.
Working class women often sought employment in the first ever ‘sweat shops’, producing mass cheap clothing. The advent of the sewing machine in 1856 made this job slightly more desirable, but not for women who did not have access to this new technology. It was unsurprising that the streets of London became ridden with prostitutes - many working class women felt this was their only hope. Some optimistic women viewed prostitution as a good way of building up some capital to later invest in a small business quality, but sadly, the majority of their lives were cut short due to contracting sexually transmitted diseases.
The Great Exhibition
Housed within 'The Crystal Palace’, The Great Exhibition embodied Albert’s vision to present the marvels from industries around the world – nothing had been seen like this in London ever before. Essentially, Prince Albert’s main motive driving the exhibition was showing off England’s manufacturing boom. The Exhibition comprised of 100,000 objects from over 15,000 contributors. As the host, Britain naturally occupied half of the available display space. France was the largest foreign contributor and it’s display was believed to be far more aesthetically pleasing than Britain’s. Yet, it was the building itself which was described as the most impressive exhibit of all.
